Lecture 10, 9/21 - Systemic diseases, classification

NOTE: Test Monday LHA 7:30. Study Handouts and Notes

Audio for today's lecture is available here.

• Zoonoses – diseases of animals transmitted to humans
• Ex. Anthrax, rabies, avian flu
• Trichophyton rubrum (red mold)– ringworm of the foot, athletes foot. Get it from shower floors.
• Sporothrix schenkii – causes rose gardner’s disease. Soil organism. Get it by being pricked by a thorn. Looks like a red train track from original puncture towards the center of your body.
• Systemic diseases
• Coccidiodes immitis – causes valley fever. Breath it in and it spreads. Primarily in southwest US (California, Arizona).
• Treated with Amphotericin B.
• Histoplasma capsulatum – causes histoplasmosis. Grows well in soil in which bird feces are present.
• Found right down the middle of the United States. Sometimes called Mississippi valley fever
• Breath it in through the lung and then it spreads.
• Also treated with Amphotericin B.
• Aspergillus fumigatus – Fungal ball disease.
• AIDS patients will breath this in and get a fungal ball in their lungs that shows up on x-rays.
• Pneumocystis jiroveci – causes Pneumocystis Pneumonea – PCP.
• Amphotericin B (p 466) – used to treat systemic fungal infections
• Ringworm called derma(skin)tophytes(fungus) – goes after skin, hair and even nails – p498
• Coccidiodomycosis – valley fever – p 547
• Dimorphic (two forms) – ex. Histo and cocci. Grow some in blood agar it will become yeast. Grow the same stuff in sab-dex you will get a white mold.
• Mycotoxins
• Aflotoxin – caused by aspergillus flavus. Cause by rotting grains. We can come in contact with it by rotting peanut butter.
• It is a primary carcinogen – causes cancer

• PROTOZOANS – much of this information is directly from the handout he gave us today (Sep-21). I wrote down the things that stuck out to me.
• PAM - Primary amoebic meningio insephilitis
• Cryptosporidium – causes diarrhea in cows, causes cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients. Sometimes called slims disease

End test 1
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Begin test 2

• CLASSIFICATION – much of this information is also directly from the handout (sep 21)
• o Genus always capitalized species lower case.

Lecture 9 9/19 - Yeast and Molds

Side notes:
• Exam 1 Monday 24th in LHA
• No class next week Wednesday (26th) and Thursday (27th)
• Paper coming up.

Dr. Knipp's Maserati ------->


Audio for today's lecture available here.

• Quick Review
  
• • Bacillus subtilis – has endospores
• • Staphylococcus epidermidis – grape like structure
• • Clostridium botulinum – exotoxins
• • Escherichia coli – gram (-)
• • Corynebacterium diphtheriae – exotoxin
• • Mycoplasma pnemonea – no cell wall
• • All fungi are eukaryotic – well defined nucleus

• YEASTS - simple, unicellular, grows well in sab-dex(so do molds) because it has a lot of sugar and a low pH.
• Ex. Schizosaccharomyces octosporus – budding and fission reproduction (asexual). Has 8 spores in the ascospores
• Cryptococcus neoformans – yeast pathogen
• Some yeasts can be 2-20 micrometers
• Can be found around the soil around orchards/vinyards, where the fruit hits the ground (sugary)
• Very thick cell walls. All molds and yeasts are gram (+)
• Some undergo budding and fission which is asexual reproduction. Others form ascospores which are bag like structures.
• Candida albicans – has conidia spores
• Yeasts can only bud (asexual) and are found in deutero’s
• • Characteristics of yeasts:
• prefer 30º C
• they like sugars
• Some are pathogens ex. candida and Cryptococcus
• Sacchromyces cerivesea – baking
• Saccharomyces carlsbergensis – beer making. If you can take their yeast you can recreate their beer
• Sacchromyces lipsoides (not on yellow sheet) – wine making. If you can take their yeast you can recreate their wine.
• Yeast are a good source of B vitamens
• Possible food source – single celled proteins.
• Chocolate cherries (margies candy)
• • Dip cherry in a sugar enzyme solution and then dip it in chocalate. The gooiness comes from the sugar/enzyme/yeast mixture breaking down the sugar.
• MOLDS
• Composed of hyphae – long strands
• • Can either have cross walls or no cross walls
• • Aseptate and septate hyphi
• • If you wind the long strands you get mycelium
• • Well defined mycelli would be found in something like penicillium.
• Similar to yeasts except for the filaments
• They produce sexually and asexually (see handout)
• Asexual is most common form of reproduction
• Conidia – way that most molds actually divide
• Some molds bud and form ascospores which puts them in the category ascomycetes. Also found in basidiomycets, dueteromycetes and zygomycetes.
• If a mold can reproduce it will try to do it asexually. If it can do sexual reproduction than it is in either ascomycetes basidiomycetes or zygomycetes.
• If it forms a bag like structure it is in the ascomycetes.
• If it forms a club structure it is a basidiomycote (mushrooms)
• Zygomycetes – asexually form a big black ball.
• Ex. Rhizopus – hyphea that don’t have cross walls, aseptate.
• They are a sporangium with sporangium spores in it. They blow/spread easily
• When two hyphea’s come together they form a Zygospore which is a sexual spore
• have there own sexual spore and there own asexual spore
• Characteristics/uses of Molds
• Grow well in sugars and low pH values
• Aerobes – you need air for them to grow.
• Used to produce a lot of different industrial acids. Example: citric acid (soda, Orange juice)
• Mold Enzymes – make cloudy cider clear.
• Enzymes – mold enzymes take cider to juice
• Cheeses – molds are necessary to ripen cheeses
• Blue cheese
• Penicillium roqueforti – gives it the bluish color
• Antibiotics
• Soy sauce
• Yeasts are facilitatively anaerobic – if air is they will respire. If it is not there they will ferment.
• Clostridium – ferments, it is anaerobic.
• • Pathogens
• Candida albicans – localized
• Easily treatable → Monostat
• Cryptococcal meningitis – usually breath in air contaminated with bird feces. (systemic)
• Hard to treat
• Amphotercin B – many side effects but one of the few things that works against systemic infections.
• Molds that cause Ringworms (localized infections)
• Microsporum canis - found in dogs and cats.
• Microsporum audouini - ringworm of the scalp
  
• Epidermophyton flocossum - jock itch
  
• Trichophyton rubrum -
  
• Sporothrix schenkii – subcutaneous infection
• Molds that cause (systemic infections)
• Coccidioides immitis
• Histoplasma capsulatum
• Aspergillus fumingatus
• Pneumocystis jiroveci
• o Ringworms – Cutaneous Mycoses (“tinea” means “worm”). Easily treatable with some tough actin’ tinactin!
• • Microsporum canis – found in dogs and cats. Causes problems on the arm.
• • Tinea Capitis (microsporum, trichophyton)– in the scalp
• • Tinea Barbae (trichophyton) – ringworm in the beard
• • Tinea Corporis (microsporum, trichophyton) – of the body
• • Tinea Cruris (epidermophyton) – of the crotch, from jock straps
• • Tinea Pedis (trichophyton) – of the foot. From shower stalls
• • Tinea manuum (microsporum, trichophyton) – of the hand
• • Tinea unguium (trichophyton, epidermophyton) – of the nail

Lecture 8, 9-17-07 Prokaryotic Structure

Here is the link for today's lecture audio available for download.

• • candida albicans – causes yeast infections, vaginitis, thrush, nail infections. It is not a strong pathogen, it is opportunistic (have to give it an opportunity). It is localized infection. If someone has C.A. you would assume that they have AIDS
• • Infections are categorized into two groups Localized or generalized.
• • Mold pathogens
• pneumocystis jiroveci – causes PCP – pneumocystic pnemoniae. Common cause of death in AIDS patients
• • Ring Worms – very common
• o tinea pedis – athletes foot
• • important mold structures
• penicillium
• aspergillus
• rhizopus
• • Giardia lamblia - get it from water contamination
• • plasmodium – causes malaria. Vector is mosquito
• • bio terrorism agents
• Category A - common.
• • Variola major (Smallpox)
• • Bacillis anthracis (anthrax)
• • Yersinia pestis (plague)
• • Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (botulism)
• • Francisella tularensis – rabbit fever
• This organism can go through your skin
• Category B
• • Coxiella burnetti – causes Q fever
• • Brucella – tough organism
• Prokaryotic structure
• Endospores – survival mechanism (not a reproductive mechanism) Very resistant. Only some have spores, clostridium and bacillus. Disinfectant does not necessarily kill spore formers.
• • Dipikalynic acid makes these things very resistant.
• Plasmids – tiny pieces of circular DNA
• • Example: E. coli
• • Involved with non essential functions. Such as antibiotic resistance.
• • MRSA – antibiotic resistance
• • Importance: genetic engineering
• Vacuoles – simply air bubbles
• • Example: Cyanobacteria (blue-green algea) – form bubbles and come up to the top of the water to get light in order to photosynthesize then they come back down.
• Chromatophores – membrane bound structures
• • Contain photosynthetic bacteria like chromatiom
• Cell membrane/mesosome
• • Selectively permeable walls.
• • Usually a tri layered structure.
• • Visualized as protein ships floating in a sea of phospholipids.
• • Sight of energy yielding reactions (mitochondria – tied to the membrane)
• • Primarily the same throughout the world (some differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cells)
• • Mesosome is an infolding of the membrane. Close to the chromosome because it has the energy (ATP).
• Cell wall
• • Different in gram (+) and gram (-)
• • Gram (+) cell walls are twice as thick as gram (-). Composed primarily of one layer which consists of peptidoglycan. Techoic acids are on the outside and they give the antigenic character to the gram (+) organism.
• • Gram (-) cell wall is half the size of the gram (+). Peptidoglycan is buried on the inside. Has a lot of proteins on the outside which give it its antigenic character. It has better defined pores.
• Peptidoglycan – rigid layer that gives shape to organisms
• • Visualized as a net.
• • Composed of amino sugars – nuramic acid and glucosamine. Usually have an amino acitile group attached to the amino group called Inacitile meramic acid sometimes called NAM. This is connected to NAG inacitile glucosamine. You have a huge polymer of NAM + NAG + NAM + NAG. These must be connected with amino acid side chains which is where you get the peptido from (peptide). The NAM + NAG is the “glycan” part.
• • Why is peptidoglycan important:
• Lysosyme acts at this level. It breaks the bond between NAG and NAM. A common source of lysosyme is tears.
• • Penicillin interrupts amino acid cross links
• • Penicillin reacts better to gram (+) because peptidoglycan is on the outside.
• Unique components of cell wall
• • Muramic acid is in both gram (+) and gram (-) because it is part of the peptidoglycan
• • Techoic acid, found only in gram (+).
• • DAP diamino pymelic acid -(don’t confuse it with DPA (di pikalynik acid) which is found in spores) Found in gram negative cell wall.
• • LPS – lipo polysaccharide (dark H’s with strings coming out, see handout). Part of gram (-) cell wall. The dark H’s are Lipid “A” which is very toxic and the strings coming out are the polysaccharides. This is important because LPS is known as the endotoxin. If you ever get gram (-) in your blood and the body tries to take them out then they lyse the organism and release the endotoxin.
• Outside of the cell wall
• • Glycocalyx (made out of sugars) – 2 groups: capsules and slime layers.
• • Capsules – distinct part of cell, well defined.
• Simple – Dextran (sometimes called glucan) - streptococcus mutans (gives you cavities), B anthracis: unique because it is only made of one amino acid
• Complex – made out of sugars, sugar acids, amino sugars
• • Strep pneumonea (causes primary pnemoniea)– pathogenic because of the capsule.
• • Clost. Perfringens - causes gas gang green and turkey day food poisoning
• • Kleb pneumoniae – causes secondary pneumonia. Can also cause urinary tract infections.
• Function of capsules – good adhesion
• • Capsules help organisms get around phagocytosis.
• Antiphagocytic capsule.
• • Outside source of energy.
• • Slime layers
• Loosely bound. Here today and gone tomorrow, they can float away.
• • Flagella
• Only some have flagella. Can range from one to 10 micrometers in length.
• If something moves it is the protein that does it. Flagella movement is the same way. This requires energy which means it is located near the cell membrane.
• Very thin and hard to see
• 3 types
• • Monotricous flagellation – many psuedomongus fall into this category
• • Amphitricous flagellation – flagella off of both ends.
• • Peritrichous flagellation – flagella all over the perimeter. The proteus organisms fall under this group and are very motile. Salmonella is also very motile.
• • Pili – smaller than flagella.
• Sexual pili (conjugation) – used in a linking up process. What happens is DNA is transferred one cell to the other (linked) through the sexual pilis. This is NOT sexual reproduction. They divide by binary fission, start with two cells and end up with two cells.
• Asexual pili – used for adhesion (primarily used by pathogens). Link up with a host cell. Examples: Niceria goneria- the clap and bordetella pertussis- whooping cough.
• • Molds and yeasts, the Fungi – Eukaryotic cells
• Yeasts are singular cells and are called Unicellular fungi – reproduce by budding.
• Molds are multi-cellular filaments (filamentous fungi) – reproduce by spores (these spores are exospores which are different than the endospores that you find in bacteria). Conidia – common term to refer to sperm reproduction in molds.

Lecture 7, 9-14-07 - Cell structure, Gram(+)(-)

Audio for today's lecture is available here.

• Linnaeus – one of Sweden’s top biologist. From Uppsala.
• First one to try and do classification – genus, species.
• More info about Linnaeus here.
  
• Typically use common names for viruses despite available classification system ex. HIV Epstein Bar Virus.
• Silvilvice and holmes
• Child bed fever a.k.a. puerperal fever caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (same thing that causes strep sore throat)
• Easily transferred diseases in the hospital due to doctors not disinfecting in between doing autopsies and caring for patients.
• General differences between Gram Positive and Gram Negative
• If you put stains in the media gram positive doesn’t grow, they are susceptible to dye in the media. Gram (-) grow fine.
• Sensitivity to lysozyme (Fleming discovered it).
• Lysosyme with a gram (+) all of the cell wall is removed leaving you with a protoplast. In a gram (-) it only takes out part of the cell wall. Lysosyme also known as a bacteria living enzyme. This experiment proved the difference between gram (+) and gram (-)
• Structural forms
• If you are looking at a round structure or spore forming rods it is probably gram (+).
• Non spore forming rods is gram(-). If you every run into a spiral (like syphilis) it will be gram (-)
• Toxins –
• not all gram (+) have exo-toxins. These ones do however: Botulism, Tetanus, diptheria.
• All gram (-) have an endo toxin which is part of the cell wall. Erwinia cartovora – classical plant pathogen. Find it on lettuce – causes spoilage.
• Septic shock a.k.a. Endotoxin shock - means a gram (-) in their blood.

• Erilick
• Salverzan – a magic bullet that took out psyphilis
• We have some leprosy in US. (Texas, Louisiana) Nearly 12 million in the world. Can’t grow leprosy, difficult to study.
• Acid Fast stain is used to diagnose TB and leprosy
• These two organisms have a very unique lipid that prevents them from staining well. You have to force the stain in by steaming it. Acid alcohol decolorizes it and counter stain it with blue. If it is acid fast it is stained red. All the others are blue. Acid fast organisms are usually in the genus mycobacterium.
• Giemsa - Intracellular organism staining – OIP’s
• Example of OIP’s - Chlamydia, rickettsia, viruses

• Staining works because of a charge - charge interaction. Organisms usually have a net negative charge. The dies have a positive charge.

• Prokaryotic Structures
• Cellular shapes and cellular arrangements
• Cocci: micrococcus, streptococcus
• Rods (more rods than anything else): bacillis subtilis, e. coli
• Spiral: borrelia, treponema
• Pleomorphic – many shapes (mycoplasma)
• Cellular arrangement: This was taught using an illustration in class. I will do my best to reproduce it here but some of the details could be “lost in translation”
• Coccus model used to illustrate cellular arrangement. A coccus divided in two by Binary fission (in one dimension) gives you diplococcus. Example of diploccoccus is niceria and Streptococcus pnemonea. If you do binary fission again you get a chain. This is typical of certain streptococci such as mutans, pyogenes, saliveria, lactis (sour cream).
• Division in two dimensions – ?Petrats?. Some micrococci are known for ?petrats?. (not sure if this is the word)
• 3 dimensions – grape like structure – stapholococci. Another formation is cuboidal cocci. You can also find some micrococci in this arrangement.
  
• Rods can be arranged as palisades or Chinese letters. Corynebacteria all have palisade arrangment. Diptheria is arranged in this way.
• Prokaryotic Cell Structure
• Many gram (-)’s are rod shaped.
• 1 to 2 micrometers is the size of an e. coli.
• What was the first organism sequenced (genome)? I found the answer here
• Our chromosomes are linear. Most prokaryotic cells have circular chromosomes.
• Rhibozomes – protein synthesis (translation)
• S value: 70 s in e. coli composed of 50 and 30
• S value: 80 s in humans composed of 60 and 40
• Prokaryotic granules are usually intracellular reserves. If e. coli makes too much of something it puts it into granules to use later. We do the same thing – glycogen granules
• Corynebacteria have volutin granules or metotomatic granules which is phosphorus storage.
• Sulfer granules are usually stored only in photosynthetic bacteria example: Chromatium okeii
• All Prakaryotic have nucleodes, rhibozomes and cytoplasm which supports the cell and filled full of water which they need to survive. Biological reactions don’t go on without water.
• “Endo”(within)spores – formed inside the cell. Free spores are the most resistant structure we know of. Bacteria have spores as a survival mechanism.
• Only some have spores: ex. bacillis and clostridium (obligate anaerobe)
• Spores have a unique substance called dipicolinic acid – lots of calcium (provides structure). They are also unique as they have very little water. This slows things down. We break down substances by a process called hydrolysis.

Lab Demo:9/13

Hooke

• What mold did Hooke probably observe?
• Did he use a simple or compound microscope?
• When did Hooke make his contributions? What was his life span?
• What other contributions did Hooke make to Biology

Koch's Lab

• What was Koch's occupation?
  
• When did he live? In what country?
• Name 5 significant contributions he made to microbiology.
• What organism did he discover?
• What common lab techniques did he discover?
• He is probably known most for what contribution?

Pasteur

• Name 5 contributions of this individual to the field of Microbiology.
• When did he live? In what country?
• What degree did he posses? In what field?
• He is probably best known for what contribution?
• What organisms were discovered in his lab?

Leeuwenhoek's Microscope

• Van Leeuwenhoek lived in what city, country?
• Complex or simple microscope? Magnification?
• What term did Leeuwenhoek use to describe his "little animals"?
• How many of these microscopes did Leewenhoek make during his life?
• Leeuwenhoek should be remembered for what 2 major contributions to the field of Microbiology?
  

Lecture 6, 9/12 - Microscopy

NOTE: I have included a search bar that will allow you to search this sights notes or the internet as a whole. Simply select where you would like to search beneath the text box.

Here is the recording for today's lecture: Microlecture912

• Keep in mind a topic to write a paper about. Also he will not be here the 26th and 27th of Sept.

• • Epstein Bar Virus - mononucleosis, burketts lymphoma (found in Africa)
• • Microscopy – different types of microscopes
• Bright field
• • We use it downstairs
• Dark field
• • Cost 3000$ (special condenser that increases price)
• • Detects spirochetes, syphilis, Borrelia burgdorferi
• • Resolving power (RP) ≈ .2um [be able to convert to other units of measurement]
• Ultra violet microscopy
• • Has about half the wave-length of visible light (250nm)
• • RP = 0.1 allows you to see more than BF. As resolving power decreases your ability to resolve increases.
• • Cost $10,000 – lots of special components
• • Fluorescent antibody method
• • Immunofluorescence – used to diagnose. An antigen could be a bacteria or a virus. For instance you can use to determine if something has a rabies virus.
• • NEGRI – pockets of fluorescence indicate presence of antibodies – if it does than the thing has rabies
• Phase contrast microscopy
• • It increases contrast of what you are looking at.
• • Primary use: used to see intracellular structures in eukaryotic cells. You can see things such as mitochondria or yeast
• • Research tool, not diagnostics
• Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) – (huge)
• • Electrons have to go through the specimen
• • Hard to use. Operate at high voltage.
• • Cost $100,000 – expensive components and service
• • RP=10ang. You can see molecules at 1ang
• • To stain organisms you need heavy metals (platinum, palladium)
• • You have to have very thin specimens in order for the electrons to go through
• • Has high pressure vacuum pumps
• • Key characteristic: you can see inside of what you are looking at.
• • Electromagnet is used as an illumination source.
• Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
• • You can get 3 dimensions because it looks at the surface
• • Used for topography
• • Uses electron beam
• • Cost $50,000 to high end of $200,000
• • Stain with gold
• • RP about 100ang
• • Smaller than TEM, could fit on desk
• • Electromagnet is used as an illumination source.
• • REVIEW: Make table that contrasts table between BF, TEM, SEM
• o Cost (see notes above)
• o Resolving power (see notes above)
• o Magnification – BF=1,000x, TEM=50,000x – 1,000,000x (through photography), SEM=similar to TEM but you don’t need as much magnification.
• o Specimen – BF=both living and dead, TEM+SEM=dead
• o Color – BF=yes TEM+SEM=not directly
• o Illumination source – BF=common light TEM+SEM=electron gun
• o Size – BF=small, TEM=huge (need your own room), SEM=medium-small (could fit on a desk)
• o Type of condenser – BF=bright field condenser discovered by Abbe, TEM+SEM=electromagnets
• o Use – BF=general specimens, bacteria TEM(see inside)+SEM(see surface)=viruses
• o Prep time – BF=quick TEM+SEM= take days and weeks, TEM – slice it thin, stain it and then you can look. SEM – you can work with bigger things but still lots of prep time
• o Neisseria gonorrhoeae – the clap, the drip, STD
• Different types of stains and why we do it.
• o to see small transparent structures visible
• o see intracellular organelles like spores
• o We also stain sometimes to see extracellular organelles like flagella
• Simple stain
• • Negative stain
• • Crystal stain
• • Methalyne blue
• Differential complex stains
• Gram stains (see handout “A General Comparison of Gram-Positive and Gram Negative Organisms” from 9/12)
• Gram (+) have primarily one layer- Peptidoglycan
• A lot of lipid – gram (-), ex. E. coli
• A little lipid – gram (+), ex. B. sub
• Crystal violet – primary stain, causes both to become purple. Then comes Mordant which is a complexing agent. Forms a CVI complex. After that you decolor with something like acetone. Come back with safrinin (counter stain) and the gram stains are red and pink.
• It has to do with lipid solubility. Acetone and alcohol are lipid solvents dissolving the CVI in gram (-). The gram (+) there are too few lipids.
• • Acid fast stain
• • Spore stain
• Organisms
  
• • Gram positives
• Require many nutrients to grow
• Cell wall lipid small amounts
• Cell wall peptidoglycan high
• Reacts with penicillin
• Does not react to streptomycin
• If there are stains in the media it will not grow
• • Gram negative
• Grow nearly anywhere
• Cell wall lipids high
• Cell wall peptidoglycan small amount
• Penicillin does not work on it
• Reacts with streptomycin
• If there are stains in the media it will grow

Lab Demo:9/11, Rhizobium leguminosarum

Nitrogen fixing bacteria in legume root tissue.

Questions:

• Is this organism symbiotic or non-symbiotic N-fixer?
• Name two legumes that supports the growth of this organism.
• What enzyme is responsible for nitrogen fixation?
• Name a non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing organism.
• Do these organisms help the farmer with soil nitrogen content?
• What are NIF genes?
  

Lecture 5, 9/10, More History, Units of Measurement and Types of Microscopes

Listen to today's lecture here!

• River’s Postulates – used to prove viruses cause disease (see class handout from 8/31)
• 1. Viral agent must be found either in the host’s body fluids at the time of the disease or in the cells showeing specific lesions
• chicken pox - vzv – verasella (chicken pox) zoster (shingles) virus. Chicken pox early on shingles later on.
• 2. disease causation – the viral agent obtained from the infected host must cause the specific disease
• 3. Similar material from such newly infected animals or plants must in turn be capable of transmitting the disease.
• 2 organisms we cant do Kochs postulates on
• Treponema pallidum – causes syphilis
• grown in testicles of rabitt
• Mycobacterium leprae – grows best in armadillos (found in southern states). Cant grow in lab
• Golden Age of microbiology 1850-1900
• Koch is known best for one organism “Koch’s Bacillus”
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis – seen primarily in AIDS patients
• Also known for
• first one to use photo microscopy – taking a picture through the lense
• lab methods – such as staining
• Vibrio cholera – fecal contamination of water - associated with Snow (first to isolate it)
• 1883 – Metchnikoff
  
• discovered phagocytosis (white blood cells engulf and destroy organisms)
• 1888 - Roux and Yersin (Yersinia pestis – associated with plague)
• Discovered exo-toxins that caused diseases.
• Botulism (Clostridum botulinum) , tetnus (Clostridium tetani), Diptheria (Corynebacterium diptheriae)
• 1892 - Ivanowsky (Beijerinck)
• Discovered viruses
• TMV – tabacco mosaic virus (a plant virus)
• 1898 - Theobold Smith
• First great American microbiologist
• best known for vectors (insect vectors: tics, lice, flees)
• 1900’s
• von Behring and Kitasato
• worked on how we respond to exo-toxins. We form anti-toxins
• DPT – our anti toxin to diptheria and tuberculosis
• Ehrlich
• chemist who worked with syphilis
• 606th compound he tried finally killed syphilis. It was an arsenical compound – a poison. Cured a few and killed a bunch.
• first to put forth a theory of antibody formation
• Lister
• Listerine is named after him.
• aseptic surgery methods – sprayed phenol, very costic (gives chemical burns)
• father of disinfectants
• Reed
• Worked on yellow fever and it’s association with mosquitoes
• Important in building of panama canal
• Rous
• RSV – discovered “Rous sarcoma virus”. first virus to develop a solid tumor in chickens
• Winogradsky, Beijerinck
• Worked out nitrogen cycle – decomposition: organic to inorganic
• Fleming
• Penicillin – miracle drug of 20th century
• Also noted for an enzyme in your eye – lysazime, which is secreted when you cry. A common defense against organisms that cause pink eye.
• Salk, Sabin
• Came up with vaccines for polio. Attenuated polio virus – alive (technique by Pasteur)
• Salk developed injectable vaccine
• Sabin developed oral(drops) vaccine
• Avery, Mcleod, McCarty
• DNA could be transformed from one organism to the other
• process today is called transformation – genetic engineering
• • Spiegelman
• First to create a virus in a test-tube (an RNA virus)
• • Kornberg
• Created first DNA virus in a test tube.
• Kornbergs enzyme: DNA polymerase
• • Watson, Krick and Wilkens
• Double helix – helped us understand replication, transcription and translation.
• Most important discovery in 20th century.
• • Baltimore and Temin
• Discovered how RNA viruses can take over a cell. They do reverse transcriptase (RT). If you have an RNA virus you can get a DNA copy. Gene therapy.
• • 1982 - Epstein and Bar virus
• EBV – causes mononucleosis. Associated with a cancer, particularly in Africa, Burketts lymphoma.
• • Kohler and Milstein
• Discovered the hybridoma technique. Put two cells together and from there they could make monoclonal antibodies (MCAB). Pure preperation of antibodies - used in therapy and diagnosis
• • Montagnier and Gallo
• Discovered what causes AIDS which is HIV
• • Arbor, Smith and Nathans
• Restriction endo nucleases which is used in recombinant DNA.
• • HOW TO VISUALIZE MICROORGANISMS
• Units of measurements
• meter=39.37inches
• centimeter (cm)=1/100m or 10^-2meters
• millimeter (mm)=1/10cm or 10^-3meters
• micrometer (um) common distance that we use to talk about bacteria=1/1000mm or 10^-6meters
• nanometer (NM) common distance that we use to talk about viruses=1/1000um or 10^-9meters
• Angstrom=1/10NM or 10^-10M
• Resolving Power (RP)=wl of light/2(Numerical Aperture)
• ability to resolve very small things
• RP: the distance between two small objects where they can be resolved as two distinct objects or the diameter of the smallest object you can see.
• =500nm/2(1.25)
• =.5um/2.5
• =.2um (this is the smallest thing we can see in the lab)
• Bright field microscopy (BF)
• max magnification – 1000x
• costs - 1000$
• can see color
• RP=0.2 um
• Dark field microscope
• Used to diagnose diseases - particularly syphilis (spirochetes)
• unique condenser that has a hallow cone of light that allows you to see the organism
• Pick up colored pencils!!!

NOTE: In case you missed it this is a link to play the audio for today's lecture. It is labeled Micronotes910

Lecture 4, 9/7, History's Microbiologist's

• 1676 - Van Leeuwenhoek (from Delft) learned to grind lenses better than everyone. Only had one lense. Our scopes have many more. He used his microscopes to look at cloth, this is how he learned to grind lenses. Some of his lenses magnified up to 230x.
• Called the microbes he saw his “animalcules”
• He made about 250 microscopes
• he looked at muscle fiber, myelin sheath. He had a lot of curiosity.
• Buried in the bottom of a church
• 1740’s to 1780’s - controversy of spontaneous generation. Needham was advocate of spontaneous generation.
• Was disproved with the meat in the jar experiment by Redi and Spallanzani
• 1796 - jenner
• milk maids were not likely to get small pox because they got cow pox (vaccinia is name of cow pox virus) first.
• this was the start of all the vaccinations in our world
• 1830’s-40’s controversy of fermentation
• two views
• non-vital view or non-biological view
• the thought was that fermentation was due to unstable chemical substances called ferments (also known as enzymes)
• Vitalist view or Biological view (Pastuer)
• Yeasts bud and accomplish fermentation by producing enzymes that break down the sugar into alcohol and CO2
• 1854 - Snow is the father of epidemiology
• England had vibrio cholerae going around and Snow figured out the cause.
• 1860’s - Lois Pasteur
• was a painter
• helped disprove spontaneous generation.
• He helped with wine and beer makers whose wines were going sour.
• you need pure yeast when you ferment things. you must also disallow air from entering. Fermentation is anaerobic. Yeast take glucose to pyruvate. The pyruvate is taken to ethynol and CO2. Acetobacter acetii – causes it to go to acidic acid. Essentially the wine and beer makers had been making vinegar.
• Pasteurization
• 62 degrees centigrade to kill the organisms – LTH: low temperature hold
• HTST – high temperature short time 72 degrees centigrade for 15 seconds.
• Silk worms were dying
• Pastuer determined that a protozoan was causing the problem
• Studied anthrax because it is a large organism.
• Attenuated vaccines
• Contains organisms that are alive but can’t cause the disease. Help your body develop antibodies
• Rabies – very deadly. You can get it from bats, raccoons, skunks. Not a big problem in US anymore.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae – one of the worst causes of primary pnemoniae.
• Staphylococcus aureus – causes staff infections. Causes about 25 diseases. One of the toughest is Abbreviated MRSA.
• Autoclave may have originated in his lab.
• He was one of the first to grow anaerobe’s
• 1870’s Koch
• German MD but pursued microbiology
• Superb experimentalist
• Worked with anthrax because it was large (he could see it well)
• Wanted to grow stuff easier and developed Agar, a solid medium to grow things. They couldn’t use gelatins because microorganisms break down protein.
• colonies are the manifestation of growth of one organism. This was important because this allowed them to isolate certain organisms and equate certain attributes with certain organisms.

Lecture 3, 9/5/07

• • CJD – no nucleic acids
• How do they reproduce if they are just protein.
• Mold have spores, yeast have buds.
• Cynobacteria are filamentous

• reasons to take micro
• ubiquitous distribution – widest distribution of any living organisms
• ideal experimental subjects
• they grow so rapidly
• a new generation of e. coli comes around every 20 min. we have more information on this one cell than any other cell in the world
• bacillus subtilis* has the second most information
• we have about a 20 year generation
• cause variety of diseases
• study of microorganisms began to understand the major epidemics such as: smallpox, polio, TB*, the plague, diptheria
• Top Disease killers Today:
• diahhrea caused by cholera or e. coli and many protozoans
• pnemonia. Pnemonia organisms: mycoplasma, streptococcus, etc
• TB – kills 3 million/yr
• malaria is a protozoan
• Hep B caused by a virus called HBV. There is a link between HBV and and primary hepatinoma liver cancer
• Measles – kills 1.5 million/yr
• Tetnus (we don’t see it due to vaccinations) - clostridium tetna* – lockjaw. Can’t get your nerves to relax. There was a horse with this and its tail was straight out
• purtussis (this is still seen in those who do not get vaccinated – whooping cough
• HIV
• Dysyntari - shigella dysenteriae – looks a lot like e. coli – tough organism
• Vacilary dysyntary
• In civil war more people died from dysenteriae than anything else
• Causes severe diarrhea
• you either have infectious disease or rectal cancer if you have blood in your poop

• • CYCLE OF LIFE – this world might last only a week without bacteria. Bacteria are big in going from inorganic to organic
• plants – need inorganic material (autotrophs)→ animals – eat organic nutrients (heterotrophs) → microorganisms (autotrophs and heterotrophs) →plants → animals (etc)
• microorganisms take things from organic to inorganic allowing plants to use them

• • Genetic Engineering
• e. coli – read the ecoli article
• (this process is a little bit confusing to me but I wrote it down as best I could) e. coli has something called a plasmid. This is what you use to make copies. Cut the plasmid with restriction enzymes. Cut the DNA of the host too. Then you put back together the plasmid and a gene from the eukaryotic cell – tied in by DNA ligase. Once you have this recombinant DNA and e. coli’s plasmid (chimera) then you put it back into another e.coli by a process called transformation. Once it is there it is called the expression host/ expression vector. You can then go two ways: make genes or more e. coli (gene cloning). This e. coli then can pump off different stuff such as insulin. This is called end product cloning
• for all this to occur you need
  

• a host cell
  
• a plasmid (from e. coli)
• foreign DNA purified by electrophoresis
• restriction endonuclease to cut the DNA
• and something to tie it together DNA ligase

• • Unique biochemical aspects of some prokaryotic cells
• nitrogen fixation
• we can’t use inorganic nitrogen. The microorganism change it to organic so we can use it. N2 → NH3 → Organic nitrogen
• NIF gene allows these certain organisms to do this. The organisms are: Rhizobium. The Rhizobium are part of a symbiotic relationship with legumes (alfalfa, soybeans). Some genetic engineering will allow plants to create their own nitrogen
• Free living – non-symbiotic nitrogen fixers – Azotobacter choococcum
• extreme thermophily – grow at high temperatures in boiling hot springs and volcanic vents in the oceans.
• chemoautotrophy – they get their energy from the oxidation of inorganic substances.
• We get our energy from oxidized organic substances, we are chemoheterotrophs
• If an organism has “nitro” in front of it then it is probably a chemoautotroph.
• Obligate anaerobiosis – organisms that only grow without air (e. coli and yeast can go either way)
• Grow without air – that is the only way they can grow. This is the clostridial group.
• Ex. botulism, tetanus, gas gang green or turkey day food poisoning.
• Clostridium difficile – causes AAPMC – antibiotic associated pseudo membranous colitus. We all have it in our intestines (small numbers). When you take a lot of antibiotics you kill the good guys and these guys take over
• Bacteroides fragilis – if this gets into your peritoneum you will be very sick

• • HISTORY
• Fracastoro (monk)
• Infectious disease
• disease was spread from person to person
• Kircher (monk)
• Worms (invisible) can be in bad meat and bad milk and poop
• Hooke
• First one to see molds

Lecture 1+2, 8/29+8/31, A Brief Survey of Microorganisms

•• Vibrio cholerae
Cholerae is associated with polluted water

•• The [P]prokaryotic (the simple one) and [E]eukaryotic microbes

• [P] The common bacteria
• •rods
• -baccilus subtilis - large rod
• -e. coli - small rod
• -vibrio cholerae - curved rod
• •cocci
• -stapholoccocus epidermidis
• -strepticoccus piogenes – round and in chain (strepto means chain)
• -acute laryngitis, strep throat
• -tough disease
• •very rare disease that causes you to lose limbs. Also called flesh eater disease. A strain of strepticaccus piogenies
• •related to the organism that causes strep sore throat. Lose 10000 old people a year who don’t get vaccinated with Pnemovax – protects against streptococcus pnemonia
• •organism that causes cavities is a strep. Streptococcus mutans.
• •Spiral (spirochete)
• -Borrelia burgdorferi – lyme disease
• •STD, one of the first ones known. Treponema pallidum. Causes syphilis. They use to call it blue nose disease, royalty had major problems with it in Europe.
• •Classical bacteria are 1-15 micrometers

••[P]The rickettsia/Chlamydia Group(smaller)

• •O.bligate I.ntracellular P.arasites
• -Hard to grow, you need a living cell to grow them
• •rikettsia are little tiny rods. About .2-.4 mircrometers
• •John denver’s disease – rickettsia rickettsia
• -Rickettsia is spread usually through a vector (like a tic)
• •Chlamydia is a cause of an STD
• -chlamydia trachomatis – comes out from the eye
• -HPV causes genital worts and certain strains cause cervical cancer. Guardisal prevents this.
• -Chlamydia is very complex, many shapes
• -To grow it in a lab you need living cells - It is very small

•• [P]The mycoplasma

• •hard to grow for different reason
• •mycoplasm pneumoniae – walking pneumoniae, the appropriate term is PAP – primary atypical pneumonia.
• •No cell wall, very delicate, extremely small
• •Mycoplasmids are the smallest cells in our world. About .1 micrometers
• •Very distinct – fried egg look

••[P]The cyanobacteria – used to be known as the blue green algea

• -prokaryotic, but have a eukaryotic type of photosynthesis
• -Anabaena azollae – provides oxygen due to the photosynthesis
• -they have a pigment
• -don’t have a true nucleus
• -some people eat cyanobacteria

••[P]The archaebacteria – the “old” bacteria

• •grow in stressful environments
• •three groups within the archaebacteria
• -called halo(meaning salt)philes - grow in high salt concentration (15-20%)
• -thermophytic acetophiles – high temperature and high acid
• -methane producers – CH4 a possible energy source. Common in sewage plants and garbage dumps

•• [E]The fungi (well defined nucleus and slightly larger than [P])

• •Yeasts – unicellular fungi, usually round. The simple fungi
• -Candida albicans – vaginitis, pathogenic
• •Molds – multicellular fungi, usually filamentous.
• -Saccharomyces cerevisiae
• -Get it from puppies - Microsporum canis

••The protozoa

• •Think about paramecium and pathogens. They range from about 2-200 micrometers
• •Montazoomas revenge – caused by Entamoeba histolytica
• •AIDS patience get this – Toxoplasma gondii – usually get it from a cat. Pregnant women are vulnerable in their first trimester

••The algae – 1micrometer –> meters

• •Produces lots of oxygen

••The acellular microbes

• •The viruses .01-.2 micrometers – discovered turn of the century
• -Simple. Nucleaic acid core. RNA or DNA but not both. RNA disease – HIV. DNA disease – oral herpes(herpes simplex).
• -Mono – EBV – Epstein Bar Virus
• •The viroids – found in 1971
• -A little piece of RNA
• -Plant disease not known to hurt humans
• •Prions –
• -Called scrappy
• -Slow developing neurological disease
• -Caused by little piece of protein
• -Mad cow disease
• -CJD

All Organisms from Handout

These are all of the organisms that he has given us on the handout from the beginning of the semester. I will be updating them as I get information on them. The numbers on the end are the date that they were last updated.

Acetobacter aceti – causes wines to turn sour, pyruvate to acetic acid. creates vinegar. Pasteur worked with it. (10/3)
Actinomyces israelii -
Alcaligenes faecalis -
Alcaligenes viscolactis -
Alternaria tenuis -
Amoeba proteus -
Anabaena azollae - provides oxygen due to the photosynthesis
Arthrobacter globiformis -
Aspergillus niger -
Azotobacter chroococcum – free living nitrogen fixers (doesn't need a plant). Have NIF gene. Good for farming. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3_
Bacillus anthracis - dangerous, bio-terrorism agent. Koch worked with it. Rod shaped. (9/11)
Bacillus cereus -
Bacillus megaterium -
Bacillus mycoides -
Bacillus polymxa -
Bacillus stearothermophilus
Bacillus subtilis – we have the second most information on this cell. Common soil organism. Rod shaped.
Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacteroides fragilis – found in your gut BUT if this gets into your peritoneum you will be very sick.
Balantidium coli
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Bordetella pertussis - whooping cough. (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)
Borrelia burgdorferi - causes lyme disease. Spirochete shape. (9/11)
Borrelia recurrentis
Branhamella catarrhalis
Brucella abortus - bioterrorism agents. Found in cattle. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)
Campylobacter jejuni - causes gastroenteritis. Upset stomach. It is a fecal organism. It has gull wings – two cells that come down. Strict oxygen requirements. Aerobic/microaerophilic, motile, helical/vibrioid gram (-) bacteria (Section 2 of classification sheet that was handed out on 9/21) (10/3)
Candida albicans – most common cause of vaginitis (localized pathogen). It, like yeasts, buds. Fungal. Has conidia spores (9/19)
Caulobacter vibrioides
Cephalosporium acremonium
Chlamydia psittaci
Chlamydia trachomatis - STD, can come out of the eye. Pelvic inflammatory disease (9/11)
Chlorobium limicola
Chromatium okeii
Chromobacterium violoaceum
Clostridum botulinum – causes botulism, potent toxin, 2 grams would take out Chicago! It is an exo toxin. Anaerobic.
Clostridium difficile – causes AAPMC – antibiotic associated pseudo membranous colitus. We all have it in our intestines (small numbers). Antibiotics kill the good guys and these guys take over. Sexually transmitted.
Clostridium histolyticum -
Clostridium perfreingens – gas gang green or turkey day food poisoning. Anaerobic. Food borne and water borne.
Clostridium sporogenes
Clostridium tetani – lock jaw, potent toxin, 2 grams would take out chicago. anaerobe.
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum
Coccidioides immitis - causes valley fever. Breath it in and it spreads. Primarily in southwest US (California, Arizona). (9/21)
Corynebacterium diptheriae
Coxiella burnetii - causes Q fever (9/17)
Cryptococcus neoformans - yeast pathogen (9/19)
Desulfotomaculum nigrificans
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
Eikenella corrodens
Entamoeba histolytica – montazoomas revenge. protozoan. Can get it from street vendors food/water in foreign countries. eukaryotic (9/11)
Enterobacter aerogenes - associated with plants. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Enterbacter cloacae
Enterococcus faecalis
Epidermophyton floccosum - jock itch (9/19)
Erwinia cartovora
Escherichia coli - we have the more information about this organism than any other in the world. Food borne and water borne. Found in fecal matter. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/1)
Flavobacterium aquatile
Francisella tularensis – sometimes called rabbit fever. Causes tularemia. goes through unbroken skin. aerobic. (9/11)
Gardnerella vaginalis
Geotrichum candidum
Giardia lamblia - get it from tainted water (9/17)
Haemophilus duceryi
Haemophilus influenzae - Doesn’t cause the flu, the flu is a virus. This had been considered to cause it but as it turns out Haemophalis influenza actually kicks you while you are down with the flu. (10/3)
Helicobacter pylori – stomach acid (see handout), causes ulcer’s, found in the stomach. linked to stomach cancer. (9/11)
Histoplasma capsulatum – starts in the lung, found in dirt that has been enriched with bird poop. Severe lung disease that goes throughout your body – systemic. AIDS patients are more susceptible. (9/21)
Hormodendrum
Klebsiella pneumoniae -
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus brevis
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactobacillus plantarum
Legionella pneumophila - picked up on air conditioners and water towers. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 in the handout from 9/21). (10/3)
Leptospira interrogans
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Listeria monocytogenes
Methanobacterium
Methanosarcina
Micrococcus luteus
Micrococcus roseus
Microsporum audouinii - ringworm of the scalp (9/19)
Microsporum canis – a mold (spore forming). Gives you a small ring on your skin, get it from puppies/cats. (9/19)
Moraxella lacunata - found in toddlers and old folks that continually rub there eyes → pink eye. (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)
Morganella morganii
Mycobacterium avium complex
Mycobacterium leprae – ancient leprosy. Can't do Koch's postulates on them. Found in armidillo. STD
Mycobacterium tuberculosis – causes tuberculosis, closely related to ancient disease leprosy. major disease in the world. Relatively slow grower. (10/3)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae - causes walking pneumonia (PAP). too small to visualize by light microscope. no cell wall.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae - clap, meningitis. STD. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)
Neisseria meingitidis – spinal meningitis. Kills overnight. Airborne bacterial. Bioterrorism agent.
Neisseria mucosa
Neisseria sicca
Nitrobacter winogradskyi - chemoautotroph (get energy from oxidation of inorganic substances). Carry out key role in nitrogen cycle.
Nitrococcus - chemoautotroph (get energy from oxidation of inorganic substances)
Nocardia asteroides
Pasteurella multocida - more common than rabies. Get it from a bite. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Penicillium chrysogenum
Penicillium griseofulvium
Penicillium notatum
Penicillium roqueforti
Peptostreptoccus
Photobacterium phosphoreum
Plasmodium falciparum - can cause malaria
Plasmodium vivax - can cause malaria
Pneumocystis carinii
Propioibacterium acnes
Proteus mirabilis
Proteus vulgaris
Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Tough to treat. Blue green puss. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)
Pseudomonas cepacia
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Rhizobium leguminosarum – soybeans, alpalpha, clover. Nitrogen fixers. The organisms live on the plants. They have the NIF gene.
Rhizopus nigricans
Rhodopseudomonas
Rhodospirillum rubrum
Rickettsia prowazekii
Rickettsia rickettsii - John denver’s disease - Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Usually spread through a vector (like a tic) (9/11)
Rickettsia tsutsugamushi
Saccharomyces carlsbergensis - beer making. If you can take their yeast you can recreate their beer (9/19)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae – baking yeast, eukaryotic cell, easy to grow (9/19)
Salmonella choleraesuis – Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Salmonella enteritidis var. typhimurium – causes food poisoning, gives you severe diarrhea. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Salmonella typhi – causes typhoid fever. Mixing of drinking water and sewege you can get typhoid – tough disease. Food borne and water borne. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Schizosaccharomyces octosporus - budding and fission reproduction (asexual). Has 8 spores in the ascospores (9/19)
Serratia marcescenes
shigella dysenteriae – dysenteriae causes diahrea. Was the cause of more deaths than anything else in the civil war. Food and water borne. Rod shaped. Fecal - blood in poop. Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Shigella flexneri - Facultatively Anaerobic Gram (-) rods. (10/3)
Spirillum volutans - we saw it in lab. Has flagella at both ends. Usually free living. Aerobic/microaerophilic, motile, helical/vibrioid gram (-) bacteria (Section 2 of classification sheet that was handed out on 9/21) (10/3)
Sporothrix schenckii - subcutaneous infection. Causes rose gardner’s disease. Soil organism. Get it by being pricked by a thorn. Looks like a red train track from original puncture towards the center of your body.(9/21)
Staphylococcus aureus - causes staff infections. Causes about 25 diseases. One of the toughest is Abbreviated MRSA. Pasteur studied it. Grown in mannitol salt agar. (10/3)
Staphylococcus epidermidis - found all over our skin. 1-10mm (9/11)
Streptococcus cremoris
Streptococcus lactis
Streptococcus mutans - causes plaque and cavities
Streptococcus pneumoniae - one of the worst causes of primary pnemoniae - PAP. causes pneumococcal pneumoniae and meningitis.
Streptococcus pyogenes - strep throat. Airborne bacterial. causes puerperal fever.
Streptococcus salivarius
Streptococcus thermophilus
Streptomyces erythreus
Streptomyces griseus
Streptomyces venezuelae
Thiobacillus thiooxidans
Toxoplasma gondii – get it from a cat (feces). disease is called taxoplasmosis. protozoan. AIDS patients and pregnant women in first trimester
Treponema pallidum - causes syphilis. can't do Koch's postulates on them.
Treponema vincentii
Trichomonas vaginalis
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Trichophyton rubrum - (red mold)– ringworm of the foot, athletes foot. Get it from shower floors. (9/21)
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Veillonella alcalescens
Vibrio cholerae – organism comes out in the poop. Causes cholerae. Associated with Snow (9/11)
Yersinia pestis – the plague microbe. Can be transmitted by infected fleas. (9/11)
Zoogloea ramigera - sewage treatment. gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci (Section 4 from handout on 9/21). (10/3)